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Not all ants are equal: obligate acacia ants provide different levels of protection against mega-herbivores

In obligate ant–plant mutualisms, the asymmetric engagement of a single plant species with multiple ant species provides the opportunity for partners to vary in their behaviour. Variation in behaviour has implications for the interactions with third-party species such as herbivores. This study assessed the effect of obligate ant mutualists (Crematogaster mimosae, Crematogaster nigriceps and Tetraponera penzigi) inhabiting the African ant-acacia (Acacia drepanolobium) on three mega-herbivore browsers: the Maasai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi), the reticulated giraffe (Giraffa c. reticulata) and the

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